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Meta-emulation: An application to the social cost of carbon

Richard S. J. Tol

arXiv 2 Jul 2025 · Econometrics · publishedEnergy Economics (2025)

arXiv:2507.01804 · PDF · DOI · OpenAlex · Extracted main text

Abstract

A large database of published model results is used to estimate the distribution of the social cost of carbon as a function of the underlying assumptions. The literature on the social cost of carbon deviates in its assumptions from the literatures on the impacts of climate change, discounting, and risk aversion. The proposed meta-emulator corrects this. The social cost of carbon is higher than reported in the literature.

Citation extraction

16
references
28
in-text mentions
16
distinct cited
5
self-citations
3,640
main-text words

appendix boundary found by appendix_command · 85% of the source is main text. Read the extracted text to check this.

Most heavily cited references

The works this paper leans on most, across its whole bibliography — not restricted to papers in our corpus. Ranked by composite intensity, which combines how often a work is mentioned, how many sections mention it, and how much of that falls in the main text rather than the appendix.

ReferenceIntensityMentionsSectionsMain text
1Moore, Frances C., Moritz A. Drupp, James Rising, Simon Dietz, Ivan… (2024) Synthesis of evidence yields high social cost of carbon due to structural model variation and uncertainties0.7373367%
2Tol, Richard S. J (2023) Social cost of carbon estimates have increased over time self0.73732100%
3Tol, Richard S. J (2024) A meta-analysis of the total economic impact of climate change self0.6443267%
4Drupp, Moritz A., Frikk Nesje, and Robert C. Schmidt (2022) Pricing carbon0.58531100%
5Nesje, Frikk, Moritz A. Drupp, Mark C. Freeman, and Ben Groom (2023) Philosophers and economists agree on climate policy paths but for different reasons0.58531100%
6Havránek, Tomáš, Roman Horvath, Zuzana Irsova, and Marek Rusnak (2015) Cross-country heterogeneity in intertemporal substitution0.51121100%
7Matousek, Jindrich, Tomas Havranek, and Zuzana Irsova (2022) Individual discount rates: a meta-analysis of experimental evidence0.51121100%
8Anthoff, David, and Richard S. J. Tol (2022) Testing the dismal theorem0.40511100%
9Estrada, Francisco, Richard S. J. Tol, and Botzen W. J. Wouter (2025) Economic consequences of the spatial variation and temporal variability of climate change self0.40511100%
10Estrada, Francisco, and Richard S. J. Tol (2015) Toward Impact Functions For Stochastic Climate Change0.40511100%

Showing the top 10 of 16 scored citations.